01Defining ASM
Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) covers mineral extraction carried out by individuals, families and cooperatives with minimal mechanisation, low capital and high labour intensity. “Artisanal” is the most basic, hand-tool end; “small-scale” adds some equipment and organisation.
Definitions are set nationally and vary widely, by production volume, depth, number of workers, capital, area, or simply whether a permit exists. That patchwork is itself a problem: it makes ASM hard to compare across borders and easy to leave out of official statistics.
| Dimension | Artisanal / small-scale | Large-scale (for contrast) |
|---|---|---|
| Capital & mechanisation | Low, hand tools to small pumps and crushers | High, heavy plant and automation |
| Labour | High, often family- and community-based | Lower, specialised and waged |
| Formality | 80–90% informal | Licensed & regulated |
| Footprint per site | Small, dispersed, mobile | Large, fixed, long-lived |
| Who benefits locally | Direct local livelihoods | Tax, royalties, some local jobs |
Because there is no single threshold, the same operation can be “small-scale” in one country and informal “illegal mining” in its neighbour. The ASM Hub records the national definition alongside each country’s data.
02How big it is
ASM has roughly tripled over two decades, driven by rising mineral prices and a shortage of other rural livelihoods. The direct workforce is now estimated at around 45 million people in more than 80 countries, roughly an order of magnitude larger than the large-scale mining workforce, with a further 134 million or more depending on it once families and service economies are counted.
Source: Compiled from IGF, World Bank/Pact, Delve and national studies. Figures are dated estimates, see Countries.
These are estimates layered on estimates. The true totals are almost certainly higher: informal miners avoid being counted, sites appear and vanish with the price of gold, and many countries have never run a survey.
03What it produces
ASM is not marginal to global supply. It dominates some markets and feeds straight into the technologies of the energy transition.
- Coloured gemstones (e.g. sapphires)80%Up to four-fifths of some stones
- Tantalum26%
- Tin25%
- Diamonds (by volume)25%
- Gold20%
- Cobalt2%Collapsed to under 2% in 2024, from a peak of ~10–20% (c.2018)
Higher than most people assume
Source: World Bank / Pact, State of the ASM Sector; IGF. Shares are approximate and vary year to year.
Gold is the centre of gravity: it is portable, valuable, and minable almost anywhere, so it draws the most people and the most attention. But “development minerals”, sand, stone, clay, gravel and salt for local construction, are among the largest ASM segments by headcount, even if they rarely make the headlines.
04Who works in it
ASM is a livelihood of last resort and of opportunity at once. It pulls in farmers between harvests, young people without other work, and whole families. Women make up roughly a third of the global workforce, and far more in some countries, concentrated in processing, trading and services, often unrecorded and unprotected.
The work is often dangerous, unsupported pits, mercury and dust, no safety gear, and the rewards are squeezed by informality, which keeps miners out of legal markets and fair prices. That combination is exactly what formalisation tries to change.
05The formalisation challenge
Formalisation means bringing ASM inside the law: recognised rights to mine, legal routes to sell, and the protections and obligations that come with them. Done well, it lifts incomes, reduces harm and brings the sector into view. Done as paperwork alone, it just adds cost and pushes miners further underground.
- Rights & access, designated artisanal zones, affordable and secure permits, and resolving overlap with large-scale concessions.
- Finance & technique, equipment, mercury-free processing, geological information and access to credit.
- Markets, legal, traceable buying channels so miners reach fair prices rather than smugglers.
- Organisation & protection, cooperatives, labour standards, and a real say for women and young miners.